
Conceptual framework of statistical tests for an association study and our method. (Left) Conceptual framework of an association study in the presence of population stratification. (Right) Conceptual framework of our method in the same manner. (Top) Conceptual frameworks for the null (H0) hypothesis. (Bottom) Conceptual frameworks of the alternative (H1) hypothesis. Genetic background noise (B), confounding effects (C), difference in selection (D), genetic markers (G), genetic cause (X), phenotype (Y).











