Prediction performance on different species groups, in which species names are green for plant group, blue for animal group, and red for microbial group. (A) Cross-species prediction performance (AUC) evaluated on 11 species, including held-out subsets from the six benchmark species to assess zero-shot transfer to previously unseen data. (B) Prediction performance on independent test data sets of 11 species using 14 feature encodings respectively, taking CNN as an example (Supplemental Fig. S6).